The Definitive History of the Soviet Propaganda Poster

On October 25, 1917, as the Bolsheviks seized power in Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg), and a new chapter in visual communication began. The young Soviet state, faced with the challenge of conveying complex ideologies to a largely illiterate population, turned to a powerful medium: the propaganda poster.

Soviet propaganda posters, with their bold colours and striking imagery, were the wallpaper of a revolution. From 1917 to 1991, these posters shaped and reflected the changing face of the Soviet Union.

The Birth of a Visual Revolution (1917-1921)

In the aftermath of the October Revolution, the Soviet leadership recognized the need for a new form of mass communication. In 1917, literacy rates were just 37.9%, so written propaganda alone would not suffice. The answer lay in the power of the image.

Vladimir Lenin understood the power and potential of visual propaganda. In April 1918, he  issued a decree on "Monumental Propaganda". This initiative called for the removal of Tsarist monuments and their replacement with revolutionary art and slogans, effectively transforming public spaces into canvases for the new regime.

During this period, over 3,100 poster designs were created. The state established the Russian Telegraph Agency (ROSTA) in 1918, which became the central organ for poster production. ROSTA windows, displaying daily news and propaganda in storefronts, became a common sight in cities. Posters simplified complex political ideas into easily digestible visual forms, crucial for a population transitioning from Tsarist autocracy to socialist revolution.

The creation and distribution of propaganda posters was a massive undertaking. The state established specialised printing houses and art workshops. In Moscow alone, the number of lithography workshops increased from 26 in 1917 to 453 by the end of 1920.

Posters were plastered on walls, fences, and specially constructed stands in cities and villages. They appeared in factories, schools, and government buildings. Mobile agitation trains and ships, decorated with posters and carrying printing equipment, travelled to remote areas, spreading propaganda to the far corners of the Soviet state.

The aesthetic that emerged was Constructivism, characterised by geometric shapes, bold typography, and dynamic compositions. Artists like El Lissitzky, Alexander Rodchenko, and Vladimir Mayakovsky were at the forefront of this movement. Mayakovsky's famous declaration, "The streets shall be our brushes, the squares our palettes," encapsulated the spirit of the time. The artists behind these posters came from various backgrounds. Some, like Kazimir Malevich and Wassily Kandinsky, were already established avant-garde artists. Others were recent graduates of art schools, eager to put their skills to use for the revolution. Many worked in collectives, such as the famous Kukryniksy trio.

Iconic Soviet propaganda posters from this period include:

1. Dmitry Moor's "Have You Volunteered?" (1920): This poster, featuring a stern Red Army soldier pointing at the viewer, became the Soviet equivalent of the American "Uncle Sam Wants You" poster. It played a crucial role in recruitment during the Russian Civil War (1917-1922).
2. El Lissitzky's "Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge" (1919): A masterpiece of Constructivism, this abstract poster used simple shapes to represent the conflict between the Bolshevik Red Army and the counter-revolutionary White Army.
3. Viktor Deni's "Capital" (1919): This poster depicted a bloated capitalist being toppled by a worker, illustrating the Bolshevik narrative of class struggle.

Internationally, Soviet poster art influenced movements like the Bauhaus in Germany and De Stijl in the Netherlands. The bold, graphic style and integration of text and image would go on to influence commercial advertising and graphic design.

The New Economic Policy and Artistic Experimentation (1921-1927)

As the dust of revolution settled, the Soviet Union entered a period of relative economic liberalisation. Lenin's New Economic Policy (NEP), introduced in 1921, allowed for limited private enterprise to jumpstart the war-ravaged economy. This shift in policy was reflected in the propaganda posters of the era, which took on a more diverse and experimental character.

The state's grip on artistic expression loosened slightly, allowing for a flourishing of styles. While still serving the goals of the state, artists found more room for creativity. The Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia (AKhRR) was formed in 1922, bringing together artists committed to depicting the new Soviet reality. 

Cinema emerged as a powerful propaganda tool, and with it came a golden age of movie posters. Alexander Rodchenko and the Stenberg brothers became pioneers in this field, creating designs that were both promotional and works of art in their own right. Their posters for films like Sergei Eisenstein's "Battleship Potemkin" (1925) used innovative techniques such as photomontage and bold typography to capture the dynamism of the new medium.

Western advertising began to influence Soviet poster design during the NEP period. As small businesses grew, so too did the need for commercial advertising. State-owned enterprises also adopted these techniques to promote their products. The result was a hybrid form of propaganda that blended commercial appeal with ideological messaging.

Iconic Soviet propaganda posters from this period include:

1. Alexander Rodchenko's "Books" (1924): This poster for the Gosizdat publishing house features a striking photomontage of a woman shouting "Books!" through a megaphone, exemplifying the Constructivist style.
2. Stenberg Brothers' "The Battleship Potemkin" (1925): A revolutionary movie poster for Sergei Eisenstein's film, using dynamic composition and bold typography.
3. Vladimir Mayakovsky's "Reklam-Konstruktor" (1923): An innovative advertisement for the state airline Dobrolet, combining text and image in a playful, avant-garde style.

As the NEP drew to a close in the late 1920s, so too did this period of artistic experimentation. The state began to tighten its control over all aspects of society, including the arts. The stage was set for a new era in Soviet propaganda, one that would be defined by a single, state-mandated artistic style.

The Five-Year Plans and the Rise of Socialist Realism (1928-1937)

The ascension of Joseph Stalin to power marked a seismic shift in Soviet society, and the world of propaganda posters was no exception. Stalin's first Five-Year Plan, launched in 1928, aimed to rapidly industrialise and collectivise the Soviet economy. By his own admittance, the Soviet Union was “fifty or a hundred years behind the advanced countries. We must make good this distance in ten years. Either we do it, or we shall be crushed.” 

A modern, industrial USSR would have economic independence from capitalist countries. Industrialisation meant the transformation of the Soviet economy from predominantly agriculture to an industrial one. The transformation took place in the form of Five-Year-Plans. The state launched thirteen Five-Year-Plans over the next 65 years. Upon commencement of the first plan, millions of citizens worked around the clock to build hundreds of factories, power stations, dams, canals, railways and metro stations. 

The posters of this era reflected these goals, with their focus shifting from abstract revolutionary ideals to concrete economic targets. Gustav Klutsis, once an avant-garde artist, became a master of the new propaganda style. His 1930 poster "The USSR is the Shock Brigade of the World Proletariat" exemplified the aesthetic of the period: muscular workers, bountiful harvests, and gleaming factories, all rendered in a hyper-realistic style that left no room for ambiguity. These images were projecting an idealised version of the future that the state promised to deliver.

As Stalin tightened his grip on the arts in the 1930s, the designs retreated from avant-garde. In 1932, the Central Committee issued a decree "On the Reconstruction of Literary and Artistic Organisations," effectively ending the diversity of artistic groups that had flourished in the 1920s. All artists were brought under the control of state-run unions. This consolidation set the stage for the emergence of Socialist Realism as the official artistic doctrine of the Soviet Union.

Socialist Realism, formally adopted in 1934, demanded that all art be realistic in form, socialist in content, and optimistic in spirit. Propaganda posters were at the forefront of this new doctrine. They depicted happy workers exceeding production quotas, bountiful collective farms, and the transformation of the Soviet Union into an industrial powerhouse.

The cult of personality around Stalin also began to take shape during this period. His image became ubiquitous in propaganda posters, often depicted as a benevolent father figure or a wise leader guiding the nation towards a bright future. The 1937 poster "Thank You, Dear Stalin, for a Happy Childhood" by Viktor Govorkov epitomised this trend, showing children gathered around a portrait of a smiling Stalin.

While the artistic freedom of the 1920s was largely suppressed, the technical quality of poster production reached new heights. The state invested heavily in printing technology, allowing for more complex designs and larger print runs. By 1935, the annual production of political posters in the Soviet Union reached 5.7 million copies.

Iconic Soviet propaganda posters from this period include:

1. Gustav Klutsis' "The USSR is the Shock Brigade of the World Proletariat" (1930): This poster showcases the new propaganda style with its depiction of muscular workers and industrial progress.
2. Viktor Govorkov's "Thank You, Dear Stalin, for a Happy Childhood" (1937): A prime example of Stalin's cult of personality, showing children gathered around a portrait of a smiling Stalin.
3. Valentina Kulagina's "International Working Women's Day is the Fighting Day of the Proletariat" (1931): This poster celebrates women's role in building socialism, using photomontage techniques.

The propaganda posters of this era played a crucial role in mobilising the population for the massive economic and social changes of the 1930s. They created a visual narrative of progress and achievement, even as the reality for many Soviet citizens was far harsher. As the decade drew to a close, storm clouds were gathering over Europe. 

The Great Patriotic War (1941-1945)

On June 22, 1941, Germany launched Operation Barbarossa, invading the USSR and shattering the uneasy peace between the USSR and the Nazis. The Soviet propaganda machine shifted gears to meet the existential threat. Posters, with their ability to convey powerful messages quickly and effectively, became a crucial weapon in the psychological battle on the home front.

The most iconic poster of this period emerged just days after the invasion. Irakli Toidze's "The Motherland Calls!" featured a stern-faced woman in red, holding the military oath in one hand and gesturing forcefully with the other. This image, reminiscent of the French "Liberté" but distinctly Soviet in character, became a rallying cry for millions. Its power lay in its universality – the woman could be anyone's mother, wife, or daughter.

As the war progressed, early optimistic depictions of the Soviet military gave way to more sombre and emotionally charged images as the reality of the Nazi advance set in. The newly formed Soviet Information Bureau (Sovinformburo) coordinated the production and distribution of posters, working closely with artists to ensure messages aligned with current military and political needs. In Moscow alone, the "Fighting Pencil" and "Fighting Brush" collectives produced a new poster design every day throughout the war, while the Kukryniksy, a trio of caricaturists, produced biting satires of Nazi leaders that helped boost morale. 

Notably, the war years saw a softening of some pre-war ideological stances in propaganda. References to international communism were largely replaced by appeals to Russian patriotism and Slavic unity. Even religious imagery, long suppressed, made a comeback in some posters as the state sought to rally all possible resources against the invader.

As the tide of war turned following the Battle of Stalingrad in 1943, the tone of propaganda posters shifted once again. Calls for vengeance and the liberation of occupied Soviet territory became prominent themes. Viktor Ivanov's 1944 poster "We'll Make It to Berlin!" captured this new spirit of optimism and aggression.

Iconic Soviet propaganda posters from this period include:

1. Irakli Toidze's "The Motherland Calls!" (1941): This iconic poster features a stern-faced woman in red holding the military oath, becoming a powerful symbol of national resistance.
2. Viktor Ivanov's "We'll Make It to Berlin!" (1944): Capturing the optimism and aggression of the Soviet counteroffensive, this poster shows a determined soldier against a backdrop of advancing tanks.
3. Kukryniksy's "The Face of Hitlerism" (1941): A satirical poster by the famous trio of caricaturists, depicting Hitler as a grotesque monster.

The Cold War Era (1946-1984)

As the dust settled on World War II, a new conflict emerged – not on the battlefields, but across ideology, the economy and culture. The immediate post-war years focused on reconstruction and the cult of Stalin. Posters celebrated the victory over fascism while promising a bright future. Viktor Govorkov's 1946 poster "We'll Surpass Pre-War Levels!" typified this optimism, showing smiling workers against a backdrop of gleaming new factories.

Stalin's death in 1953 and Nikita Khrushchev's subsequent "Secret Speech", its official name “On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences” denouncing Stalinist excesses. This led to a period of cultural liberalisation known as the "Thaw”, which was also reflected in poster art. While still adhering to Socialist Realism, artists were allowed more stylistic freedom. Figures became less monumental, compositions more dynamic, and colours brighter.

The space race became a dominant theme in the late 1950s and 1960s. Posters celebrated Soviet cosmic achievements, from Sputnik to Yuri Gagarin's historic flight. These images not only instilled national pride but also served as powerful propaganda tools in the ideological competition with the West. Valentin Viktorov's 1963 poster "Soviet Man – Be Proud, You Opened the Road to Stars from Earth!" showcased the triumphant tone of this era.

However, as the initial excitement of the space race waned and economic stagnation set in during the 1970s, poster themes shifted. Domestic issues like productivity, quality of goods, and worker safety became more prominent. Anti-alcohol campaigns, a perennial theme in Soviet propaganda, took on renewed vigour.

International themes remained important throughout the Cold War. The leaders of the USSR knew that the Soviet Union had no future unless Communism continued to spread across the world. To that end, posters denounced American imperialism, supported liberation movements, and promoted "friendship between peoples" of the socialist bloc. In what was considered a highly successful campaign, the USSR spent more than $1 billion creating propaganda and supporting the formation of peace movements during the Vietnam War. The KGB funded peace congresses, youth festivals, women's movements and trade union movements around the world. It also started and spread rumours that AIDs was created by a US research centre, and that the CIA was involved in JFK’s assassination. 

Iconic Soviet propaganda posters from this period include:

1. Viktor Ivanov's "The Space Age Has Begun!" (1959): Celebrating Yuri Gagarin's historic space flight, this poster shows a cosmonaut floating above the Earth.
2. V. Karakashev's "Glory to the Soviet People - The Pioneers of Space" (1963): Another space-themed poster, featuring a rocket breaking through the poster's frame.
3. Eduard Simonovich Artsrunyan's "World Gendarmery" (1966): Conveys a strong anti-American military intervention message, criticizing the US's role as a global military power.

Despite the continuing large-scale production of propaganda posters, their impact was waning. The repetitive themes had lost much of their power to inspire or convince. As Soviet citizens became more cynical about official messaging, the gap between propaganda and reality widened. The medium that had once been at the cutting edge of Soviet visual culture was becoming a symbol of the system's failure.

Glasnost, Perestroika, and the Dissolution of the USSR (1985-1991)

The ascension of Mikhail Gorbachev to the position of General Secretary in 1985 marked the beginning of the end for the Soviet Union, and with it, the traditional Soviet propaganda poster. Gorbachev's policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) aimed to reform the stagnant Soviet system. 

As censorship loosened, artists began to explore themes that had long been taboo. Environmental issues, once downplayed in official propaganda, became a prominent subject. Posters addressing the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, for instance, marked a stark departure from the usual optimistic depictions of Soviet nuclear power. The 1988 poster "Attention - Radiation!" by V. Sacheenko, featuring a stark black and white image of a gas mask, exemplified this new, more critical approach.

The anti-alcohol campaign initiated by Gorbachev in 1985 produced a wave of posters that were notably more direct and sometimes even humorous compared to earlier temperance efforts. These posters often employed satire and visual puns, reflecting the more open atmosphere of the late Soviet period.

The policy of glasnost also allowed for a reassessment of Soviet history. Posters began to acknowledge historical figures who had been erased from official narratives, and even to criticise past leaders. This was a radical departure from decades of tightly controlled historical messaging.

International themes in posters shifted as well. As the Cold War thawed, images of international cooperation replaced those of ideological struggle. The 1989 poster "For a Nuclear-Free World" by A. Chernov, showing Soviet and American flags intertwined, would have been unthinkable just a few years earlier.

Famous Soviet propaganda posters from this period include:

1. V. Sacheenko's "Attention - Radiation!" (1988): A stark black and white image of a gas mask, addressing the Chernobyl disaster and environmental concerns.
2. Maystrovsky's "Comrades, Let’s Urgently Save Everything that We Breathe and Live By" (1989): Showing the environmental impacts of pollution and the destruction of nature.
3. Unknown artist's "Vote for Yeltsin" (1991): While not strictly a Soviet propaganda poster, this campaign poster for Boris Yeltsin represents the transition to post-Soviet politics.

However, as the Soviet Union began to unravel in the late 1980s, the coherence and impact of state propaganda weakened. The rise of unofficial art exhibitions, underground publications, and foreign media undermined the state's monopoly on information and imagery. The failed coup attempt in August 1991 marked the effective end of the Soviet propaganda poster as a tool of state communication. In its place, a chaotic mix of political campaign posters, commercial advertisements, and grassroots political art filled the visual landscape of the collapsing Soviet state.

Propaganda after the Fall of the USSR (1991-Present)

After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, propaganda languished. A decade later as the world welcomed in a new millennium, a new leader emerged. Vladimir Putin, who saw the USSR as the peak of Soviet power and influence sought to rebuild the empire of bygone, and unite the nation through propaganda. 

Putin quickly put the nation's television and radio channels under the control of the state. He used the media to align himself in image and ideology to admired leaders like Stalin and Lenin. He is portrayed by the media as a hypermasculine, decisive and patriotic leader, and is often photographed riding horses topless, working out, discovering ancient ruins. Like Stalin and Lenin, Putin plays the role of a strict but caring father to Russian citizens.

Today, Putin’s popularity cult is also tied to the idea of rebuilding Russia in an image of its past glory, which he uses to justify waging confrontations with the west. Leaning on nostalgia and the memory of Russia’s fight against Nazism during WWII, Putin has used propaganda as a rallying cry and justification for starting an unjustified war by invading its peaceful and friendly neighbour, Ukraine. 

The Soviet propaganda poster shifted from disposable message, to a subject of academic study and a way to visualise history. Major exhibitions in Western museums, including the Tate Modern's "Red Star Over Russia: A Revolution in Visual Culture 1905–55", 2017; "Revoliutsiia! Demonstratsiia! Soviet Art Put to the Test" at the Art Institute of Chicago, 2017, “Revolution: Russian Art 1917-1932" at the Royal Academy of Arts, London, 2017, "The Power of Pictures: Early Soviet Photography, Early Soviet Film" at The Jewish Museum, New York, 2015, "Red Alert: Russian Avant-Garde Posters from the Merrill C. Berman Collection at the Museum of Russian Icons, Massachusetts, 2022, Agitation and Propaganda: The Soviet Political Poster 1918–1929, Seattle, 2016, "Constructing Revolution: Soviet Propaganda Posters from Between the World Wars", at Bowdoin College Museum of Art, 2018.